Capital Cities of Cambodia – part I, Pre-Angkor

Capital Cities of Cambodia

Off the top of our heads we’ve come up with no less than 11 different capital cities of Cambodia over the course of some 1500 years – although we may well have overlooked another one or two – while several of these sites have been the capital on more than one separate occasion. Many of the relocations and status changes were imposed – forced – with some being less predictable and certain downright inexplicable. (Well, we’re sure there were valid reasons at the time but whatever they were have since been lost in the mists of time.)

Note that by Cambodia we’re also referring to earlier states occupying that particular geographical area such as the Angkorian empire of the late 9th to 13th centuries and the pre-Angkor polities of Funan and Chenla.

We’d also point out that in the case of certain earlier sites in particular, very limited historical information is available and much of that information is hotly debated by scholars, so the below is very much our personal thinking and some of the dates and even occasionally locations are best described as sketchy. In historical order, and with a brief description of each site and likely explanation for every change, the various capital cities of Cambodia are as follows…

Angkor Borei – Vyadhapura. c. 4th – 6th centuries CE

The little-studied Funan culture flowered in the Mekong Delta region during the first centuries of the Common Era covering a core area from the South China Sea coast northwards into what are today Takeo, Kampot and Kandal Provinces of Cambodia. It was clearly an important and highly influential maritime trading polity although thus far a relatively little studied one, (Archaeological digs have even turned up ancient Greek and Roman artefacts.)  Historians argue over the extent of said influence with some seeing Funan as having dominated the entire Gulf of Thailand region and others as just one of the more important of several early, coastal, trading  ports. Even Funan’s ethnic make up is debated. It is certainly the earliest described polity/proto-state/kingdom in what is now Cambodia and while its ruling class may well have been ethnic Cham, the bulk of its population would have been Mon-Khmer.

The principal port was located at a site known as Oc Eo in Vietnam’s An Giang Province while its capital Vyadhapura has been tentatively situated at Angkor Borei in Cambodia’s aforementioned Takeo Province. The latter is disputed by certain scholars and various alternatives for the location of Vyadhapura have been suggested although in so far as the ancient walled settlement is by some way the largest site yet discovered from that period in that region, it does, in our opinion, present a solid case. Oc Eo is a significant sized site, however, early Chinese records do specify that the capital was inland from and separate to the main port. Angkor Borei possessed an extensive canal network linking it with, among many sites, Oc Eo and had a strategic location at the southern limit of the slightly higher (and drier) terrain that marks the northern geographical limit of the Delta Region proper.

Although today no standing structures remain from that period at Angkor Borei, vestiges of a large, walled settlement housing numerous temple sites have been identified underneath the modern town and we’d be confident that it was indeed the site of the Funanese capital. The sharp decline of the maritime polity during the 6th century led to the creation of a new capital far inland. It is widely thought that what Chinese records refer to as Chenla began life as an inland region under the direct or indirect control of powerful Funan before its decline in the late 6th century allowed said region to assert independence from and ultimately dominate Funan. (As a port, Funan did continue to send tribute to Chinese emperors during the late 6th and even 7th centuries although there are also records of successful military campaigns by Chenla kings Bhavavarman I and Ishnavarman I – see below – in the Funan heartland.)

Sambor Prei Kuk – Ishnapura/Bhavapura. c. late 6th – mid 7th centuries

In part due to the 2017 UNESCO World Heritage listing of Sambor Prei Kuk, the site, located in central Cambodia’s Kampong Thom Province, has received far more attention than Angkor Borei and it can be said with some confidence that the ruins represents the capital of Chenla, which succeeded Funan as the region’s dominant polity from the late 6th onwards. Although once again the ruling classes’ DNA is debated, the bulk of the population was certainly Khmer and as such Ishnapura-Bhavapura can be considered to be the first fully Khmer example of the capital cities of Cambodia. Although the ancient city is generally referred to as Isnapura, or Ishnapura, after its most celebrated ruler King Ishnavarman I (c. 611/13 to 628-37) the earliest vestiges date back to the late 6th century and King Bhavavarman I who established his capital at the site after departing his father’s city of Lingapura at Lao’s present-day Wat Phu. (Yes, the first capital of the pre-Angkorian Chenla civilisation was indeed in Lao rather than Cambodian.)

As monarch’s tended to name capitals after themselves the city undoubtedly began life as Bhavapura and indeed there is some epigraphical evidence that the site reverted to this name in later times. (Although the official capital moved during the latter part of the 7th century, Sambor Prei Kuk continued to exist as an important regional centre until the end of the Angkor period.)

Bhavavarman II succeeded Ishnavarman with Mahendravarman having preceded him at the turn of the 7th century and it is likely that the sprawling ruins, myriad sanctuaries and vestiges of city walls actually correspond to a series of overlapping cities, constructed by subsequent kings. Jayavarman I acceded to the Chenla throne around 657 and, for reasons best known to himself, relocated his capital some 150 kilometres westwards to what is now Siem Reap.

Purandarapura – c. late 7th – early 8th centuries

Epigraphical records also indicate that during the latter part of the 7th century Jayavarman I commissioned a brand new capital, Purandarapura, in the region of today’s Siem Reap Town. Or at least, somewhere in that vicinity as you won’t find a booth selling entrance tickets to the ancient city, now will you see any Ministry of Tourism signs showing you the route, as nobody yet has conclusively located it. Indeed, although Jayavarman I was an important king, ruled for a considerable period and according to inscriptions sat on a throne in a city called Purandarapura, not too many historians seem to have searched for it.

In addition to inscriptions, a reasonable dating tool is architectural style. Since the Prei Khmeng architectural style is associated with the second half of the 7th and early part of the 8th centuries, then searching for any cluster of temples displaying that particular style would logically provide clues as to the whereabouts of Jayavarman’s capital. While Prei Khmeng period sites are scattered widely, the most impressive in the Siem Reap region are found in the area of the huge West Baray reservoir, a short distance west of Angkor itself and northwest of modern Siem Reap Town. Prasat Prei Khmeng, which gives its name to the style, is found just west of the Baray, while the pyramid-style Ak Yum lies on the south bank. The latter is a strong candidate for the royal temple of Jayavarman I and interestingly Queen Jayadevi, who succeeded him somewhere around the beginning of the 8th century. (The only known Angkorian or pre-Angkorian queen, Jayadevi is said by some scholars to have been Jayavarman’s daughter.)

If Ak Yum occupied a central area within the city then that would put much of Purandarapura underneath the 11th century West Baray.

Aninditapura – c. 8th century

The 8th century is the least known period of Khmer history; inscriptions as well as Chinese records imply both civil strife as well as troublesome neighbours and even the king list for this period is full of question marks. Records do refer to a city named Aninditapura although what it was and where it was is even less certain than Purandarapura. It appears to have possibly, although not certainly, located in the same area as the latter and whatever now lost walls it possessed may have overlapped with Purandarapura while it is also conceivable that it is an alternative name for the same site.  Conversely several historians place Aninditapura in southern Cambodia although as far as we can see, no actual suggested sites of any significance have been identified. Wherever it was, the city is best described as just of several capital cities of Cambodia during that period and it’s uncertain how far out of the immediate area its power extended. It wasn’t until Jayavarman II arrived on the scene in the early 9th century that any form of unified capital emerged.

Rolous – Hariharalaya. c. late 8th century

Jayavarman II is one of Cambodia’s most highly reputed kings and is considered to have both liberated and reunified the empire after the strife of the 8th century and indeed is thought of as the founding father of Angkor itself. Scholars generally identify the year 802 as the dividing line between what they classify as Angkor and pre-Angkor. (See Prasat Rong Chen.)

His origins are unclear and he may have arrived on his unifying mission from the east of the country and a [possible base at the early site of Banteay Prei Nokor in today’s Kampong Cham Province. Probably new to the area, the king established a new capital to the east of Siem Reap at what is today known as Rolous. Early sites such as Prasat Trapeang Phong possibly date to this period but probable security concerns saw him relocate his capital to the well defended summit of a nearby plateau, Phnom Kulen.

Kulen – Mahendrapavarta.  c. late 8th – early 9th centuries

This first and last mountain-top site among the capital cities of Cambodia, lying some 50 kilometres north of Siem Reap, was named Mahendrapavata, meaning Mountain of the Great Indra. Formerly both heavily forested and heavily mined, (landmines that is), the site has only been extensively surveyed in recent times but has revealed an extensive ancient city, numerous shrines and temples as well as reservoirs and canals.

The location may have helped with early security concerns but the rather remote mountain-top location wasn’t a very practical one and with the political situation seemingly settling down Jayavarman II moved his capital back to his first choice of Rolous.

Rolous – Hariharalaya II. c. 9th century

The city of Hariharalaya, named after Harihara, a Hindu deity who combines the features and attributes of both Vishnu and Shiva, was to remain the capital city of Cambodia for the best part of a century. This period saw the construction of what are today’s popular temple sites of Prasat Bakong, Preah Ko and Lolei and from where Jayavarman II, Jayavarman III and Indravarman I extended the empire over much of today’s Cambodia and neighbouring regions.

As the post is getting lengthy this seems like a good point for a break and part II of capital cities of Cambodia takes up the story with the move to Angkor at the start of the 10th century.